Supporting ESL Beginners with Interrupted Education and Limited Literacy: Strategies for Effective Instruction

Students who are both illiterate in their home language due to interrupted education and beginners in English as a Second Language (ESL) face unique and compounded challenges in the classroom. These challenges necessitate specialized instructional strategies that address both language acquisition and foundational literacy skills. This essay explores the impact of interrupted education and illiteracy on ESL learners, provides strategies for educators to support these students, and discusses methods to differentiate between learning difficulties and the effects of interrupted education.

Impact of Interrupted Education and Illiteracy on ESL Learners

Interrupted education refers to significant gaps in formal schooling due to various factors such as conflict, displacement, or socio-economic barriers. Students with limited or interrupted formal education (SLIFE) often arrive in ESL classrooms without foundational literacy skills in their native language, making the acquisition of English literacy more complex. Research indicates that SLIFE students are more likely to be identified with specific learning disabilities, such as dyslexia, due to the overlap between language acquisition challenges and learning difficulties.

The absence of literacy in the home language impedes the development of metalinguistic awareness—the ability to reflect on and manipulate the structural features of language. This awareness is crucial for understanding the alphabetic principle and phonemic awareness in English. Consequently, these students may struggle with decoding, spelling, and reading comprehension in English, leading to academic underachievement and decreased self-confidence,

Strategies for Supporting ESL Beginners with Limited Literacy

1. Establish a Supportive and Inclusive Classroom Environment
   
   Creating a welcoming classroom atmosphere is essential for students who have experienced trauma or displacement. Establishing routines, using visual schedules, and incorporating culturally relevant materials can help students feel secure and valued. It's also important to build strong relationships with students and their families, fostering trust and open communication.
   
   

2. Implement Multisensory Instruction
   
   Multisensory teaching methods engage multiple senses to reinforce learning. For illiterate ESL learners, this approach can include activities such as tracing letters in sand, using manipulatives to form words, and employing songs or chants to reinforce phonemic patterns. These activities help students connect sounds to symbols and build foundational literacy skills.
   
   

3. Utilize Native Language Support
   
   When possible, providing instruction in the student's native language can facilitate understanding and bridge gaps in literacy. This support can be offered through bilingual aides, community volunteers, or peer tutoring. Additionally, allowing students to use their home language for initial literacy activities can build confidence and provide a foundation for learning English.
   
   

4. Focus on Oral Language Development
   
   Before introducing reading and writing, it's crucial to develop students' oral language skills. Engaging students in storytelling, role-playing, and interactive dialogues can enhance vocabulary acquisition and comprehension. These activities also provide a context for understanding the structure and function of language, which is essential for later literacy development.
   
   

5. Implement Scaffolded Reading Instruction
   
   Using leveled texts and providing scaffolds such as picture cues, sentence frames, and guided reading sessions can support students in developing reading skills. It's important to select texts that are culturally relevant and linguistically appropriate, ensuring that students can connect with the material and gradually build their reading abilities.
   
   

6. Provide Ongoing Assessment and Feedback
   
   Regular formative assessments can help educators monitor student progress and identify areas of need. Assessments should be designed to be culturally and linguistically appropriate, considering the student's background and experiences. Providing constructive feedback that emphasizes effort and growth can motivate students and reinforce positive learning behaviors.
   
   

Differentiating Between Interrupted Education and Learning Disabilities

Distinguishing between the effects of interrupted education and potential learning disabilities is critical for providing appropriate support. Educators should consider the following approaches:

• Gather Comprehensive Background Information
  
  Conducting interviews with students and their families can provide insights into the student's educational history and experiences. Understanding the extent and nature of any educational interruptions can help differentiate between gaps in learning and potential learning disabilities.
  
  

• Implement a Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS)
  
  An MTSS framework involves providing varying levels of support based on student needs. Initially, all students receive high-quality, evidence-based instruction. If a student continues to struggle, additional interventions are provided. This approach allows educators to determine whether a student's difficulties are due to inadequate instruction or a potential learning disability.
  
  

• Use Culturally and Linguistically Appropriate Assessments
  
  Standardized assessments may not accurately reflect the abilities of ESL learners with limited literacy. Utilizing assessments that are adapted for language learners and considering the student's cultural context can provide a more accurate picture of their abilities.
  
  

• Collaborate with Specialists
  
  Working with special education professionals, ESL specialists, and school psychologists can help in accurately identifying learning disabilities. These professionals can conduct specialized assessments and provide recommendations for appropriate interventions.
  
  

Conclusion

Supporting ESL beginners who are illiterate in their home language due to interrupted education requires a multifaceted approach that addresses both language acquisition and foundational literacy skills. By implementing strategies such as creating a supportive classroom environment, using multisensory instruction, providing native language support, focusing on oral language development, offering scaffolded reading instruction, and conducting ongoing assessments, educators can help these students overcome challenges and succeed academically. Additionally, by gathering comprehensive background information, implementing a Multi-Tiered System of Support, using culturally and linguistically appropriate assessments, and collaborating with specialists, educators can differentiate between the effects of interrupted education and potential learning disabilities, ensuring that students receive the appropriate support they need.

References

Custodio, B., & O'Loughlin, M. (2020). Students with interrupted formal education. American Federation of Teachers. Retrieved from https://www.aft.org/ae/spring2020/custodio_oloughlin

DeCapua, A., & Marshall, H. W. (2011). Reaching ELLs at risk: Instruction for students with limited or interrupted formal education. Preventing School Failure: Alternative Education for Children and Youth, 55(1), 35-41.

Hamayan, E. V., Marler, B., Sanchez Lopez, A., & Damico, J. S. (2013). Special education considerations for English language learners: Delivering a continuum of services. Caslon Publishing.

Short, D. J., & Boyson, B. A. (2004). Helping English language learners succeed in middle and high schools. Center for Applied Linguistics.

WIDA. (2015). Focus on SLIFE: Students with limited or interrupted formal education. University of Wisconsin–Madison. Retrieved from https://wida.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/resource/FocusOn-SLIFE.pdf

WIDA. (2023). Identifying multilingual learners with specific learning disabilities. University of Wisconsin–Madison. Retrieved from https://wida.wisc.edu/sites/default/files/resource/FocusBulletin-Identifying-Multilingual-Learners-Specific-Learning-Disabilities.pdf

Enhancing Middle School ESL Education through the SIOP Model: A Research-Based Approach

English Language Learners (ELLs) in middle school face the dual challenge of acquiring proficiency in English while mastering academic content across various subjects. The Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP) model, developed by Echevarria, Vogt, and Short (2017), offers a structured framework designed to address these challenges by integrating language development with content instruction. This essay explores the effectiveness of the SIOP model in middle school ESL classrooms, supported by empirical research and practical applications.

Understanding the SIOP Model

The SIOP model comprises eight components aimed at making academic content comprehensible for ELLs while promoting language development:

1. Lesson Preparation: Clearly defined content and language objectives.
   
   

2. Building Background: Connecting new concepts to students' prior knowledge.
   
   

3. Comprehensible Input: Using speech appropriate for students' proficiency levels.
   
   

4. Strategies: Techniques to make learning strategies explicit.
   
   

5. Interaction: Opportunities for students to use language in meaningful ways.
   
   

6. Practice/Application: Hands-on activities to reinforce learning.
   
   

7. Lesson Delivery: Effective delivery of content and language objectives.
   
   

8. Review/Assessment: Regular review and assessment of student understanding.
   
   

These components collectively aim to create an inclusive learning environment that supports both language acquisition and content mastery.

Research Supporting the SIOP Model

Empirical studies have demonstrated the efficacy of the SIOP model in enhancing academic outcomes for ELLs. A five-year study conducted by Short (2010) examined the impact of the SIOP model on middle school science classrooms. The findings indicated significant improvements in students' academic language proficiency and concept comprehension, highlighting the model's effectiveness in content areas with high language demands.

Further research by Boughoulid (2020) in Morocco explored the application of the SIOP model in diverse classrooms. The study found that students taught using SIOP strategies outperformed their peers in mainstream classes, particularly in tasks requiring critical thinking and language use, underscoring the model's adaptability across different educational contexts.

Practical Applications in the Classroom

Implementing the SIOP model in middle school ESL classrooms involves strategic planning and adaptation of instructional practices. Teachers can begin by setting clear content and language objectives for each lesson, ensuring that students understand the goals and expectations. Incorporating visual aids, graphic organizers, and interactive activities can enhance comprehension and engagement.

Additionally, fostering a classroom environment that encourages collaboration and communication among students is crucial. Group discussions, peer reviews, and cooperative learning activities provide opportunities for ELLs to practice language skills in authentic contexts, reinforcing their learning and building confidence.

Integration of Digital Tools

Incorporating digital tools into the SIOP framework can further enhance the learning experience for ELLs. Platforms such as Quizlet for vocabulary building, Google Classroom for collaborative projects, and Kahoot for interactive assessments can provide engaging and accessible ways for students to practice language skills. These tools not only support language development but also familiarize students with digital literacy, an essential skill in today's educational landscape.

Conclusion

The SIOP model offers a research-based, structured approach to teaching English Language Learners in middle school settings. By integrating language development with academic content instruction, the model addresses the unique challenges faced by ELLs and promotes their academic success. Educators seeking to enhance their instructional practices can benefit from adopting the SIOP model, supported by ongoing professional development and a commitment to creating inclusive learning environments.

References

Boughoulid, M. (2020). The SIOP model as an empowering teaching method for English language learners: A study case. European Journal of English Language Teaching, 6(2). Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/348997224_THE_SIOP_MODEL_AS_AN_EMPOWERING_TEACHING_METHOD_FOR_ENGLISH_LANGUAGE_LEARNERS_-_A_STUDY_CASE

Echevarria, J., Vogt, M. E., & Short, D. J. (2017). Making content comprehensible for English learners: The SIOP model (5th ed.). Pearson Education.

Short, D. J. (2010). The impact of the SIOP model on middle school science and language learning. Center for Applied Linguistics. Retrieved from https://cal.org/create/research/impact-of-the-siop-model-on-middle-school-science-and-language-learning.html

Generational Motivations for Giving: Millennials vs. Baby Boomers

Philanthropy has long been a cornerstone of American society, but the motivations behind charitable giving are not static, they evolve with each generation. Today, nonprofits and higher education institutions face the challenge of understanding what drives donor behavior among two powerful cohorts: Millennials and Baby Boomers. According to Giving USA (2023), Americans donated over $499 billion to charitable causes in 2022, with individual donors accounting for 64% of all giving. Within this massive philanthropic landscape, understanding why people give and how they prefer to engage can make the difference between a successful campaign and a missed opportunity.

This blog explores how life stage, cultural values, and historical context shape philanthropic behavior in Millennials and Baby Boomers, offering practical strategies for organizations to engage both groups effectively.

Why Their Giving Styles Differ

Generational identity shapes values and behaviors through shared experiences, and philanthropy is no exception. Baby Boomers, born between 1946 and 1964, grew up during post-World War II economic prosperity. They experienced stable employment opportunities and benefited from institutional trust, which translates into confidence in traditional organizations like churches, alma maters, and hospitals (Tempel et al., 2022). Many Boomers view charitable giving as an expression of loyalty, gratitude, or civic duty. This is why unrestricted gifts and capital campaigns appeal to this group.

Millennials, born between 1981 and 1996, have taken a different path. They came of age during the digital revolution, the Great Recession, and mounting student debt. These factors contribute to their lower disposable income compared to Boomers, yet Millennials show high participation rates in giving (National Philanthropic Trust, 2023). Their motivations emphasize purpose, impact, and transparency. Unlike Boomers, who often assume institutions will steward donations appropriately, Millennials want proof—data, stories, and visible results. They also value community-based giving and see philanthropy as a personal extension of identity, not just a financial transaction (Forbes, 2018).

Technology plays a critical role in this generational divide. Millennials live in a world of “Googlization” (Tempel et al., 2022), where information is immediate, and engagement happens online. This translates into preferences for digital campaigns, crowdfunding, and peer-to-peer fundraising. Baby Boomers, by contrast, are less reliant on social media and more responsive to traditional outreach methods like direct mail, phone calls, and in-person events (Blackbaud, 2016).

Real-Life Giving Examples

Millennial Giving: From Viral Campaigns to Digital Communities
One of the most striking examples of Millennial-driven philanthropy is the ALS Ice Bucket Challenge of 2014, which raised over $115 million for the ALS Association. The campaign thrived on social media, peer influence, and gamification, core elements that resonate with Millennials’ desire for collaborative impact (ALS Association, 2020). Similarly, Giving Tuesday has become a global movement powered by younger donors. In 2023, Giving Tuesday raised $3.1 billion in the United States alone, much of it through online channels and social media advocacy (GivingTuesday, 2023).

Another example is crowdfunding for personal and social causes. GoFundMe has collected over $30 billion since its inception, fueled by a generation that values transparency and wants to see their contributions make a tangible difference (Time, 2017). For Millennials, philanthropy is not just about money; it’s about storytelling, community, and shared values.

Boomer Giving: Legacy and Large-Scale Impact
On the other end of the spectrum, Baby Boomers dominate major institutional gifts. In 2024, Dr. Ruth Gottesman, a former professor at Albert Einstein College of Medicine, donated $1 billion to make the school tuition-free for all students, a classic example of Boomers’ loyalty to trusted institutions and desire to leave a legacy (Barron’s, 2024). Many higher education naming opportunities, such as endowed chairs and buildings, are underwritten by Boomer donors who seek permanence and recognition.

Boomers’ giving is closely tied to traditional solicitation strategies. Capital campaigns, alumni reunions, and recognition events remain highly effective for this group, reinforcing their connection to institutions that shaped their personal and professional lives (Shaker & Borden, 2020).

Millennials vs. Baby Boomers: A Snapshot

Aspect	Millennials	Baby Boomers
Participation Rate	~84% giving annually (National Philanthropic Trust, 2023)	~72% giving annually (National Philanthropic Trust, 2023)
Average Gift	~$481 annually (National Philanthropic Trust, 2023)	~$1,212 annually (National Philanthropic Trust, 2023)
Preferred Channels	Online, social media, crowdfunding (AFP Global, 2022)	Direct mail, phone calls, events (Blackbaud, 2016)
Motivating Factors	Social impact, transparency, identity alignment (Forbes, 2018)	Tradition, loyalty, legacy (Tempel et al., 2022)
Technology Use	High—peer-to-peer platforms, mobile apps	Moderate—email and web giving, less social media
Recognition	Impact reports, digital storytelling	Naming opportunities, plaques, legacy programs

Why It Matters to Fundraisers

These differences have practical implications for nonprofits and higher education institutions. Engaging Millennials requires authenticity and interactivity. They expect two-way communication and want to see measurable outcomes. Organizations that embrace digital platforms, share real-time impact updates, and provide opportunities for involvement beyond donations—such as advocacy or volunteer roles—are more likely to retain Millennial donors (AFP Global, 2022).

Boomers, in contrast, appreciate formality and recognition. Personalized stewardship, invitations to exclusive events, and legacy planning opportunities resonate with this generation. Ignoring these preferences risks alienating donors who control the majority of charitable dollars today—Boomers account for 43% of all giving (Blackbaud, 2016).

Practical Tips for Organizations

To Engage Millennials:

• Offer mobile-friendly donation options and recurring gift programs.

• Use social media to share authentic stories and impact metrics.

• Provide opportunities for co-creation, such as crowdfunding campaigns where donors can champion a cause.

• Emphasize transparency with dashboards, reports, and testimonials.

To Engage Baby Boomers:

• Continue traditional methods like direct mail and phone campaigns, supplemented with email newsletters.

• Highlight institutional stability and legacy opportunities such as endowments or scholarships.

• Offer formal recognition through naming opportunities and exclusive donor events.

• Use trust-based messaging rather than transactional appeals.

The Future of Philanthropy

As Millennials progress in their careers and increase their earning potential, their influence on philanthropy will grow. Already, they are reshaping the sector by demanding accountability, equity, and inclusivity from the organizations they support. At the same time, Baby Boomers remain critical players, sustaining capital campaigns and major gift initiatives.

The real question is: Will Millennials adopt some of the traditions that define Boomer philanthropy, or will their values permanently transform the landscape? Looking ahead, one certainty emerges: successful organizations will not choose between generations—they will craft strategies that honor legacy while embracing innovation. Those that adapt will thrive; those that do not risk being left behind.

References

AFP Global. (2022). How different generations give: Four things you need to know. Association of Fundraising Professionals. https://afpglobal.org/how-different-generations-give-four-things-you-need-know

ALS Association. (2020). ALS Ice Bucket Challenge impact report. https://www.als.org/icebucketchallenge

Barron’s. (2024, February 26). $1 billion medical school donation could reshape philanthropy. https://www.barrons.com/articles/1-billion-medical-school-donation-could-reshape-the-scope-of-academic-philanthropy-591b7519

Blackbaud. (2016). The next generation of American giving. https://institute.blackbaud.com/asset/the-next-generation-of-american-giving-2018/

Forbes. (2018, August 15). How Millennials are changing philanthropy. https://www.forbes.com/sites/theyec/2018/08/15/how-millennials-are-changing-philanthropy

GivingTuesday. (2023). Giving Tuesday 2023 impact report. https://www.givingtuesday.org

National Philanthropic Trust. (2023). Charitable giving statistics. https://www.nptrust.org/philanthropic-resources/charitable-giving-statistics

Shaker, G. G., & Borden, V. M. H. (2020). Trends and issues in higher education fundraising. Indiana University Lilly Family School of Philanthropy.

Tempel, E. R., Seiler, T. L., & Burlingame, D. F. (Eds.). (2022). Achieving excellence in fundraising (5th ed.). Wiley.

Time. (2017, August 29). The real reasons people use GoFundMe to cover health care costs. https://time.com/4912910/crowdfunding-gofundme-youcaring

Literacy and Language Development for ESL Students: Strategies for Success

English as a Second Language (ESL) learners face the dual challenge of acquiring English language proficiency while developing literacy skills necessary for academic success. Literacy and language development are foundational for ESL students because they provide the skills required to access content across subjects, communicate effectively, and participate fully in classroom learning. For beginning ESL learners, targeted instruction in phonics, reading comprehension, vocabulary, writing, and oral language is critical. This essay explores these components, highlighting strategies that educators can employ to support ESL learners in grades K–8.

Phonics and Decoding: Building the Foundation

Phonics instruction is essential for beginning ESL learners because it helps students understand the relationship between letters and sounds, allowing them to decode unfamiliar words and build reading fluency. Phonics instruction is especially important for ESL students who may not have literacy skills in their native language. According to Vaughn and Linan-Thompson (2003), ESL learners who receive systematic phonics instruction show greater improvement in word recognition and reading accuracy compared to peers who do not receive targeted phonics support.

Strategies for Teaching Phonics and Decoding

1. Explicit, Systematic Instruction: Teachers should introduce letter-sound correspondences in a structured sequence, starting with consonants and short vowels before moving to more complex patterns. Regular review and cumulative practice reinforce learning (Torgesen & Hudson, 2006).
   
   

2. Multisensory Approaches: Using visual, auditory, and kinesthetic methods can help ESL learners internalize phonics concepts. For example, students can trace letters while saying the corresponding sounds or use manipulatives such as letter tiles to form words (Snow & Juel, 2005).
   
   

3. Repetition and Rehearsal: Providing multiple opportunities for students to read words, sentences, and texts aloud helps reinforce decoding skills and builds fluency.
   
   

4. Integration with Vocabulary: Teaching phonics alongside key vocabulary allows students to practice decoding meaningful words in context, increasing retention and comprehension.
   
   

Reading Comprehension Strategies: Making Meaning Accessible

Reading comprehension is a major hurdle for ESL learners, as they must simultaneously decode text and understand vocabulary and syntax. Research demonstrates that comprehension improves when teachers provide structured support, such as visual aids, story maps, and repeated readings (August & Shanahan, 2006).

Effective Strategies for Reading Comprehension

1. Visual Aids: Pictures, diagrams, and graphic organizers can help students make connections between text and meaning. For example, students can use pictures to sequence events or illustrate characters’ emotions.
   
   

2. Story Maps and Graphic Organizers: Tools such as story maps, concept webs, and flow charts assist students in identifying the main idea, supporting details, and sequence of events. These tools make abstract concepts more concrete and aid in organizing information logically.
   
   

3. Repeated Readings: Encouraging students to read the same text multiple times increases fluency, word recognition, and comprehension. Repetition also provides opportunities for teachers to model expressive reading and correct pronunciation.
   
   

4. Guided Discussions: After reading, teachers can facilitate discussions, asking questions that promote critical thinking and ensuring students comprehend the text.
   
   

Vocabulary Development: Expanding Academic and Social Language

Vocabulary acquisition is central to ESL instruction, as limited vocabulary can hinder both comprehension and expression. ESL learners need access to both academic language, which is used in classrooms and textbooks, and social language, which allows them to interact effectively with peers and teachers (Cummins, 2000).

Strategies for Vocabulary Development

1. Pre-Teaching Key Vocabulary: Introducing essential words before reading or content lessons helps students focus on comprehension rather than decoding unfamiliar terms during the lesson.
   
   

2. Word Walls and Visual Supports: Displaying vocabulary with definitions and images reinforces learning and provides a reference for students.
   
   

3. Contextualized Learning: Teaching words within meaningful contexts—such as stories, projects, or discussions—helps students understand how to use vocabulary appropriately.
   
   

4. Interactive Activities: Games, role-play, and collaborative activities allow students to practice new words actively, improving retention and practical use.
   
   

Writing Support: Developing Expression and Structure

Writing is a complex skill that requires proficiency in vocabulary, grammar, and organization. ESL learners often struggle to express ideas in written English, even when oral proficiency is emerging. Structured writing support can help students organize thoughts and produce coherent text.

Strategies for Supporting ESL Writing

1. Sentence Frames and Starters: Providing templates such as “I think ___ because ___” or “The main character ___” helps students structure their writing and practice academic language in context.
   
   

2. Guided Journals: Daily or weekly journaling encourages students to practice writing regularly in a low-pressure setting. Teachers can provide prompts that connect to students’ interests or current lessons.
   
   

3. Peer Editing and Collaboration: Pairing students to review each other’s work promotes reflection and language development. Students can learn new vocabulary, grammar structures, and writing conventions from peers.
   
   

4. Step-by-Step Writing Instruction: Breaking writing tasks into smaller steps—brainstorming, drafting, revising, and editing—allows students to focus on specific skills at each stage.
   
   

Oral Language Development: Supporting Fluency and Communication

Oral language skills are foundational for ESL learners, enabling them to communicate ideas, participate in discussions, and develop confidence in using English. Speaking and listening activities complement reading and writing instruction and promote fluency.

Strategies for Developing Oral Language

1. Dialogues and Role-Play: Structured role-play exercises allow students to practice functional language in real-life scenarios, reinforcing both social and academic language skills.
   
   

2. Reader’s Theater and Choral Reading: Reading scripts aloud as a group improves pronunciation, fluency, and intonation while reducing anxiety about making errors in front of peers.
   
   

3. Interactive Discussions: Small-group or partner discussions give students opportunities to practice speaking in a supportive environment.
   
   

4. Listening Comprehension Activities: Audio books, songs, and teacher read-alouds model fluent English and expose students to varied vocabulary and sentence structures.
   
   

Conclusion

Literacy and language development are critical for ESL students, especially those in grades K–8 who are still acquiring foundational English skills. Phonics instruction provides the essential decoding skills necessary for reading fluency. Reading comprehension strategies such as visual aids, story maps, and repeated readings help students understand and retain content. Vocabulary development ensures access to both academic and social language, while writing support scaffolds students’ ability to express ideas coherently. Finally, oral language development activities build fluency, confidence, and communication skills. By integrating these strategies in a systematic and supportive way, educators can foster ESL learners’ academic success and lifelong literacy.

References

August, D., & Shanahan, T. (2006). Developing literacy in second-language learners: Report of the National Literacy Panel on Language-Minority Children and Youth. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Cummins, J. (2000). Language, power, and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the crossfire. Multilingual Matters.

Snow, C. E., & Juel, C. (2005). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. National Institute for Literacy.

Torgesen, J. K., & Hudson, R. F. (2006). Reading fluency: Critical issues for struggling readers. In P. McCardle & V. Chhabra (Eds.), The voice of evidence in reading research (pp. 329–358). Brookes Publishing.

Vaughn, S., & Linan-Thompson, S. (2003). Research-based methods of reading instruction for English language learners. Brookes Publishing.

Young, T. A., Miller, M. D., & Smith, J. L. (2019). Reader’s Theater: A strategy for developing fluency, comprehension, and motivation. Reading Horizons, 58(1), 1–19.